International Financial Management Essay Example

International Financial Management Essay INTERNATIONAL FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT Undertaken at â€Å"TECNIA INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES† Submitted in the partial fulfillment for the award of the degree of MASTER OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION Under the Supervision  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Submitted by and Guidance ofRAMAN KUMAR Ms. Sakshi Goel 05117003910 (Lecturer IFM)MBA- 3rd Sem SESSION: 2010 2012 TECNIA INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES (Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Govt. of India) Affiliated To Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University, Delhi INSTITUTIONAL AREA, MADHUBAN CHOWK, ROHINI, DELHI- 110085 E-Mail:[emailprotected] rg, Website: www. tecniaindia. org Fax No: 27555120, Tel: 27555121-24 Ques 1) Bring out the similarities and dissimilarities in the financing facilities at IMF and World Bank. Discuss how the two institutions help in the development of developing countries? World Bank and IMF * The World Bank and the IMF are twin pillars supporting the worlds economic and financial structure. The World Bank is an investment bank owned by its member nations. The IMF functions more like a credit union whose members can draw from a common pool of funds to assist in emergencies. As of Aug. 1, 2010, its biggest borrowers were Romania, Ukraine and Hungary. 19441969 * From July 1 to 22, 1944, the IMF and World Bank Articles of Agreement were formulated at the International Monetary and Financial Conference in Bretton Woods, New Hampshire. On May 8, 1947, France became the first nation to borrow from the IMF. On Sept. 29, 1967, the IMF board approved a plan to establish special drawing rights (SDRs), which are international reserve assets used by member countries to supplement their foreign exchange reserves. 19701985 * On Aug. 15, 1971, the U. S. topped using the gold standard to settle international transactions. In 1974, the IMF adopted a new method of SDR valuation based on a basket of 16 currencies. This basket was simplified on Sept. 17, 1980, to hold five currencies, and today it holds fou r: the U. S. dollar, euro, Japanese yen and pound sterling. On Dec. 2, 1985, the two agencies expressed support for a U. S. initiative for comprehensive adjustment measures by debtors, increased and more effective structural lending by multilateral development banks, and expanded lending by commercial banks. 1986-Onward * On Dec. 9, 1987, the IMF established the Enhanced Structural Adjustment Facility (ESAF) to provide resources to developing nations undergoing fundamental debt restructuring and economic reform. Countries of the former Soviet Union joined the two agencies in 1992. The IMF, in conjunction with the G7, helped stabilize the 1995 Mexican peso crisis and the 1997 Asian currency crisis. On Jan. 8, 2001, the IMF and the Bank announced debt relief for 22 countries, 18 of them in Africa. On Apr. 13, 2003, a joint IMF-World Bank project was launched to monitor the policies and actions needed to achieve the United Nations Millennium Development Goals by 2015. On Sept. 25, 2005, agreement was reached on a G7/G8 proposal to provide 100 percent debt relief to the worlds heavily indebted poor countries (HIPCs). During their April 2006 meetings, the IMF and the Bank focused on ways to finance clean energy in developing countries, and the role of governance in meeting worldwide social, health and economic goals. Similarities Differences The overall structure of the  United Nations System  and  World Bank Group  has been described in previous posts. Both of those groups have expanded exponentially since their creation. Given that both the UN and World Bank were born from the same parents almost simultaneously, the extent of differences among organizations both within and between those two broad institutional systems is surprising: 1. Although membership in all entities within the UN System and World Bank Group is limited to sovereign- states, all members of the United Nations  General Assembly  are not necessarily members of  IBRD  (or other  World Bank  subsidiary bodies or specific UN  specialized agencies); 2. We will write a custom essay sample on International Financial Management specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on International Financial Management specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on International Financial Management specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Although sovereign-state members are represented by their respective governments within  UN  System  and  World Bank Group  entities, different agencies within those governments represent them in those different international bodies (for example, [i] ministries of  foreign affairs  generally represent their governments  in the  General Assembly  and  Security Council, [II] bi-lateral development agencies, ministries of external affairs, or sector-specific  line ministries  normally represent them inspecialized agencies, and [iii] ministries of  finance  or  central banksnormally represent them in the  World Bank  and  International Monetary Fund  [IMF]); 3. Although informal agreements existed that the  Administrator  of the  United Nations Development Programme  (UNDP) and thePresident  of the  World Bank  should both be Americans,6  a wide range of other nationalities have always served in the highest leadership position of other UN specialized agencies; 4. Although senior leaders within both systems stressed the importance of â€Å"country-knowledge† among staff, the UN system began posting  Resident Representatives  to client countries very early-on while the World Bank continues to rely primarily on staff and consultants dispatched from its Washington headquarters; and 5. Although the UN system fairly rapidly expanded its interests in international development assistance and capacity to provide it, the attention of its overall leadership and Secretariat staff remains focused on, in the words of Craig Murphy, â€Å"matters of international high politics. † IMF and World Bank help in the development of developing countries The IMF and World Bank collaborate regularly and at many levels to assist member countries and work together on several initiatives. In 1989, the terms for their cooperation were set out in a  concordat  to ensure effective collaboration in areas of shared responsibility. High-level coordination: During the  Annual Meetings  of the  Boards of Governors of the IMF  and the World Bank, Governors consult and present their countries’ views on current issues in international economics and finance. The Boards of Governors decide how to address international economic and financial issues and set priorities for the organizations. A group of IMF and World Bank Governors also meet as part of the  Development Committee, whose meetings coincide with the Spring and Annual Meetings of the IMF and the World Bank. This committee was established in 1974 to advise the two institutions on critical development issues and on the financial resources required to promote economic development in low-income countries. Management consultation. The Managing Director of the IMF and the President of the World Bank meet regularly to consult on major issues. They also issue joint statements and occasionally write joint articles, and have visited several regions and countries together. Staff collaboration. The staffs of the IMF and the Bank collaborate closely on country assistance and policy issues that are relevant for both institutions. The two institutions also often conduct country missions in parallel and staff participate in each other’s missions. IMF assessments of a country’s general economic situation and policies provide input to the Bank’s assessments of potential development projects or reforms. Similarly, Bank advice on structural and sectoral reforms is taken into account by the IMF in its policy advice. The staffs of the two institutions also cooperate on the  conditionality  involved in their respective lending programs. The 2007 external review of Bank-Fund collaboration led to a  Joint Management Action Plan  on World Bank-IMF Collaboration (JMAP) to further enhance the way the two institutions work together. Under the plan, Fund and Bank country teams discuss their country-level work programs, which identify macro-critical sectoral issues, the division of labor, and the work needed from each institution in the coming year. A recent  review of JMAP implementation  underscored the importance of these   joint country team consultations in enhancing collaboration. Reducing debt burdens. The IMF and World Bank also work together to reduce the external debt burdens of the most heavily indebted poor countries under theHeavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) Initiative  and the  Multilateral Debt Relief Initiative (MDRI). The objective is to help low-income countries achieve their development goals without creating future debt problems. IMF and Bank staff jointly prepare country debt sustainability analyses under the  Debt Sustainability Framework (DSF)  developed by the two institutions. Reducing poverty. In 1999, the IMF and the World Bank initiated the  Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP)  approach—a country-led plan for linking national policies, donor support, and the development outcomes needed to reduce poverty in low-income countries. PRSPs underpin the HIPC Initiative and most  concessional lending by the IMF  (in particular, the  Extended Credit Facility (ECF)) and World Bank. Monitoring progress on the MDGs. Since 2004, the Fund and Bank have worked together on the  Global Monitoring Report  (GMR), which assesses progress needed to achieve the UN  Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). The report also considers how well developing countries, developed countries, and the international financial institutions are contributing to the development partnership and strategy to meet the MDGs. Assessing financial stability. The IMF and World Bank are also working together to make financial sectors in member countries resilient and well regulated. The  Financial Sector Assessment Program (FSAP)  was introduced in 1999 to identify the strengths and vulnerabilities of a countrys financial system and recommend appropriate policy responses. Ques 2) What to do understand by swap? What are the various types of swaps? An Introduction To Swaps Derivatives  contracts can be divided into two general families: 1. Contingent claims, i. e. , options 2. Forward claims, which include exchange-traded futures,  forward contracts  and  swaps   3. A swap is an agreement between two parties to exchange sequences of cash flows for a set period of time. Usually, at the time the contract is initiated, at least one of these series of cash flows is determined by a random or uncertain variable, such as an interest rate, foreign exchange rate, equity price or commodity price. Conceptually, one may view a swap as either a portfolio of forward contracts, or as a long position in one bond coupled with a short position in another bond. This article will discuss the two most common and most basic types of swaps: the  plain vanilla  interest rate and  currency swaps. The Swaps Market Unlike most standardized  options  and  futures  contracts, swaps are not exchange-traded instruments. Instead, swaps are customized contracts that are traded in the  over-the-counter  (OTC) market between private parties. Firms and financial institutions dominate the swaps market, with few (if any) individuals ever participating. Because swaps occur on the OTC market, there is always the risk of a counterparty defaulting on the swap. (For background reading, see  Futures Fundamentals  and  Options Basics. ) The first  interest rate swap  occurred between IBM and the World Bank in 1981. However, despite their relative youth, swaps have exploded in popularity. In 1987, the  International Swaps and Derivatives Association  reported that the swaps market had a total notional value of $865. 6 billion. By mid-2006, this figure exceeded $250  trillion, according to the Bank for International Settlements. Thats more than 15  times  the size of the  U. S. public equities market. Plain Vanilla Interest Rate Swap The most common and simplest swap is a plain vanilla interest rate swap. In this swap, Party A agrees to pay Party B a predetermined,  fixed rate of interest  on a  notional principal  on specific dates for a specified period of time. Concurrently, Party B agrees to make payments based on a  floating interest rate  to Party A on that same notional principal on the same specified dates for the same specified time period. In a plain vanilla swap, the two cash flows are paid in the same currency. The specified payment dates are called  settlement dates, and the time between are called settlement periods. Because swaps are customized contracts, interest payments may be made annually, quarterly, monthly, or at any other interval determined by the parties. (For related reading, see  How do companies benefit from interest rate and currency swaps? ) For example, on December 31, 2006, Company A and Company B enter into a five-year swap with the following terms: * Company A pays Company B an amount equal to 6% per annum on a notional principal of $20 million. Company B pays Company A an amount equal to one-year LIBOR + 1% per annum on a notional principal of $20 million. LIBOR, or  London Interbank Offer Rate, is the interest rate offered by  London  banks on deposits made by other banks in the  eurodollar  markets. The market for interest rate swaps frequently (but not always) uses LIBOR as the base for the floating rate. For simplicity, lets assume the two parties ex change payments annually on December 31, beginning in 2007 and concluding in 2011. At the end of 2007, Company A will pay Company B $20,000,000 * 6% = $1,200,000. On December 31, 2006, one-year LIBOR was 5. 33%; therefore, Company B will pay Company A $20,000,000 * (5. 33% + 1%) = $1,266,000. In a plain vanilla interest rate swap, the floating rate is usually determined at the beginning of the settlement period. Normally, swap contracts allow for payments to be netted against each other to avoid unnecessary payments. Here, Company B pays $66,000, and Company A pays nothing. At no point does the principal change hands, which is why it is referred to as a notional amount. Figure 1 shows the cash flows between the parties, which occur annually (in this example). (To learn more, read  Corporate Use Of Derivatives For Hedging. ) | Figure 1: Cash flows for a plain vanilla interest rate swap| Plain Vanilla Foreign Currency Swap The plain vanilla currency swap involves exchanging principal and fixed interest payments on a loan in one currency for principal and fixed interest payments on a similar loan in another currency. Unlike an interest rate swap, the parties to a currency swap will exchange principal amounts at the beginning and end of the swap. The two specified principal amounts are set so as to be approximately equal to one another, given the exchange rate at the time the swap is initiated. For example, Company C, a  U. S. firm, and Company D, a European firm, enter into a five-year currency swap for $50 million. Lets assume the exchange rate at the time is $1. 25 per euro (i. e. , the dollar is worth $0. 80 euro). First, the firms will exchange principals. So, Company C pays $50 million, and Company D pays  ¬40 million. This satisfies each companys need for funds denominated in another currency (which is the reason for the swap). | Figure 2: Cash flows for a plain vanilla currency swap, Step 1. | Then, at intervals specified in the swap agreement, the parties will exchange interest payments on their respective principal amounts. To keep things simple, lets say they make these payments annually, beginning one year from the exchange of principal. Because Company C has borrowed euros, it must pay interest in euros based on a euro interest rate. Likewise, Company D, which borrowed dollars, will pay interest in dollars, based on a dollar interest rate. For this example, lets say the agreed-upon dollar-denominated interest rate is 8. 5%, and the euro-denominated interest rate is 3. 5%. Thus, each year, Company C pays  ¬40,000,000 * 3. 50% =  ¬1,400,000 to Company D. Company D will pay Company C $50,000,000 * 8. 25% = $4,125,000. As with interest rate swaps, the parties will actually net the payments against each other at the then-prevailing exchange rate. If, at the one-year mark, the exchange rate is $1. 40 per euro, then Company Cs payment equals $1,960,000, and Company Ds  payment would be $4,125,000. In practice, Company  D would pay the net difference of $2,165,000 ($4,125,000 $1,960,000)  to Company C. | Figure 3: Cash flows for a plain vanilla currency swap, Step 2| Finally, at the end of the swap (usually also the date of the final interest payment), the parties re-exchange the original principal amounts. These principal payments are unaffected by exchange rates at the time. | Figure 4: Cash flows for a plain vanilla currency swap, Step 3| Who would use a swap? The motivations for using swap contracts fall into two basic categories: commercial needs and  comparative advantage. The normal business operations of some firms lead to certain types of interest rate or currency exposures that swaps can alleviate. For example, consider a bank, which pays a floating rate of interest on deposits (i. e. , liabilities) and earns a fixed rate of interest on loans (i. e. , assets). This mismatch between assets and liabilities can cause tremendous difficulties. The bank could use a fixed-pay swap (pay a fixed rate and receive a floating rate) to convert its fixed-rate assets into floating-rate assets, which would match up well with its floating-rate liabilities. Some companies have a comparative advantage in acquiring certain types of financing. However, this comparative advantage may not be for the type of financing desired. In this case, the company may acquire the financing for which it has a comparative advantage, then use a swap to convert it to the desired type of financing. For example, consider a well-known  U. S. firm that wants to expand its operations into  Europe, where it is less well known. It will likely receive more favorable financing terms in the  US. By then using a currency swap, the firm ends with the euros it needs to fund its expansion. Exiting a Swap Agreement Sometimes one of the swap parties needs to exit the swap prior to the agreed-upon termination date. This is similar to an investor selling an exchange-traded futures or option contract before expiration. There are four basic ways to do this. 1. Buy Out the Counterparty Just like an option or futures contract, a swap has a calculable market value, so one party may terminate the contract by paying the other this market value. However, this is not an automatic feature, so either it must be specified in the swaps contract in advance, or the party who wants out must secure the counterpartys consent. . Enter an Offsetting Swap For example, Company A from the interest rate swap example above could enter into a second swap, this time receiving a fixed rate and paying a floating rate. 3. Sell the Swap to Someone Else Because swaps have calculable value, one party may sell the contract to a third party. As with Strategy 1, this requires the permission of the counterparty. 4. Use a Swaption A  swaption  is an option on a swap. Purchasing a swaption would allow a party to set up, but not enter into, a potentially offsetting swap at the time they execute the original swap. This would reduce some of the market risks associated with Strategy 2.. Conclusion Swaps can be a very confusing topic at first, but this financial tool, if used properly, can provide many firms with a method of receiving a type of financing that would otherwise be unavailable. This introduction to the concept of plain vanilla swaps and currency swaps should be regarded as the groundwork needed for further study. You now know the basics of this growing area and how swaps are one available avenue that can give many firms the comparative advantage they are looking for.

Blue Ocean Strategy Paper Essays - Marketing, Blue Ocean Strategy

Blue Ocean Strategy Paper Essays - Marketing, Blue Ocean Strategy Blue Ocean Strategy Paper MKT421 June 1, 2015 Blue Ocean Strategy Paper Many companies entering the business world, whether offering a product or service, find the progressiveness of the revolutionary business atmosphere to be rather problematic. Opposition, contention, and competitive space in the market are factors that many companies are discovering to be challenging in the succession and relevancy of their freshly offered product or service. With the use of the blue ocean strategy, establishing the appropriate environment that paves the way to success can be an enormous relief for any company. Blue Ocean Strategy Description and Importance Kim and Mauborgne (2004) describe the blue ocean strategy as having the ability to create market space without competition in order to collect the most profits. In an industry that has become fully established, companies are continually competing for every space available in the market. The blue ocean strategy eliminates the struggle for market space by providing companies with the proper education to become pertinent, essential, and lucrative. In the world of business, a blue ocean refers to open water, meaning a market without competitors. Competition can be expensive for a company, and without that added expense, it has the ability to operate, expand, and create innovative ideas, which ultimately allows the company to capitalize profits and utilize every possible opportunity that arises. In order for a company to cease the rivalry with competitors, they must switch motives. This creates a blue ocean because a new demand is created, transforming the competition into irrelevant sour ces. The blue ocean strategy utilizes analytical instruments such as value pioneering, differentiation, and lower costs, as the jumping off point in the blue ocean process. Four principles are the key elements in the next steps of the blue ocean process. Those principles, how the market space without competition is created, preserving that the big picture remains in focus, aiming beyond the current demand, and keeping to the strategic arrangement, allow a company to conquer risk-causing obstacles leaving the structure of the current market open for tackling. Fair process and implications of leadership are dealt with, including organizational hindrances. These hindrances, whether political, motivational, or cognitive, can deter a company from its path to success by way of the blue ocean strategy. An Example and Why The blue ocean strategy has been the innovative plan of action for many companies in their quest for total industrial domination. 3M is one company that has become particularly innovative in leading the way. 3M has led the way for many years in a wide variety of innovative products by creating products that are reverent in a very competitive market. Focusing on such a huge company, narrowing 3M Corporation down to just the division of stationary products is a difficult task. Such innovations that include Post it note, Scotch Bright, Scotch tape, along with many, many other innovative product 3M leads the way with useful innovations that pave the way using the blue ocean strategy. By implementing key concepts, value innovation, and differentiation, 3M created products that fit both low cost, and create an open market because such products were not available. Next by addressing contested market space, 3M reconstructed market boundaries, focused on the big picture, created a product that addressed existing demand placed strategic sequence that fit to the 3M label. Narrowing down to a single product, Post-it-note by 3M, fit all of the blue ocean strategy because it was the first of its kind and created open water for the 3M corporation to expand and maximize revenues. Being introduced in 1977, Post it notes is a piece of notepaper with an adhesive strip of glue on the back that temporarily attaches the note to documents or surfaces. Post it notes were the first of their kind, and is a prime example of how the blue ocean strategy works fitting all key elements to attract customers with just a piece of paper. Red Ocean Strategy Start here. The Red Ocean strategy focuses on the opposite of the blue ocean strategy. A company implementing a new product or service into a crowded marketplace can difficult. Such things as similar products and lower cost points can be unattractive for a product or service. Furthermore, there is a way of manipulating a

World History Soldier's Journal Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

World History Soldier's Journal - Essay Example However gradually I realized that it is my duty, my responsibility and I should not be emotional about it. With the passing time, I started perceiving my job as a symbol of manhood and started feeling proud about being a soldier. The advancement of nationalism in the 19th century had many severe outcomes. Rivalry for trade and colonies started to increase. Europe’s immense powers were rapidly segmented into two alliances, the Triple Entente and the Triple Alliance. Predicaments in the Balkans within 1908 to 1913 made several European countries annoyed with one another. They were enthusiastic to go to combat to safeguard the supremacy of their national regions. Not all racial sections turned out to be nations. However the development of nationalism made the Poles, the Slavic and the Irish people’s demand of forming their individual national states. The National demands were not the sole reason behind the developing internal divergences during the initial years starting from 1900. During those times the socialist labor movements became further authoritative. These progresses were more and more intending to make use of strikes to achieve their objectives, even though this procedure paved the way f or hostility. A few of the conventional leaders were scared of the fact that their countries were on the edge of mutiny. Some history scholars claim that the terror of upheaval and the willingness to restrain internal disputes influenced the authoritative figures of some countries to take part in the war of 1914. Subsequent to 1900, the magnitude of armies all around Europe started to growth at a shocking rate. Conscription, a military draft, was utilized by the majority of the Western countries prior to 1914. It brought about the size of the European armed forces to an amount that is double the earlier number of armies between the time period 1890 and 1914. Militarism (arrangement for war) was developing. Military guides got to be

Involving Parents Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Involving Parents - Essay Example After successfully contacting and personally interviewing a citizen academy official, I was able to obtain substantial information on the measures and plans that they put in place to ensure an effective partnership and participation of culturally and linguistically parents in their organization. The first question I posed to the official was on the approximate number of CLD parents who participate in the organization. Unfortunately, the official did not have an exact figure of the number of CLD parent in participation in citizens Academy. However, according to the views received from the official, it was evident that only a few CLD parents are involved despite the organization’s effort for equal representation of all CLD parents in the Academy despite regardless of cultural and linguistic diversity. The last meeting that was held, the official revealed to me that only five families precipitated. Regarding the groups from which the parents come from, it was evident that a number of diversified groups are represented in the organization. The groups of parents, as retrieved from the interview, are from the Louisa county public health, the university of Lowa, Columbus junction lion’s club, family credit union, Columbus junction police department, and the united Presbyterian church. CLD parent in Citizen Academy participate in a various ways to ensure that all issues and questions they raise are appropriately answered. The major participation of the parents is through the attendance of frequent held meetings held by the organization. The organization also holds field trips to various destinations, which provide a medium for the parents to participate actively. The concerns from the CLD parents are mainly because of the diversity in cultural and linguistic backgrounds. The unique characteristic raising a major concern is that the parents are refugees from underdeveloped countries, who are new to the region; hence are

Micro Economy Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1

Micro Economy - Research Paper Example Choosing one alternative requires giving up a number of other alternatives. There is an opportunity cost involved in making choices. Opportunity cost is considered to be the most important concept in economics. It is the value of the best alternative that is given up in order to make a choice (Rittenberg and Tregarthen 2011). It is on these ideas that the theory of comparative advantage is based. A country is deemed to have a comparative advantage in producing a good if it has a low opportunity cost n producing that good. Firms as well as countries have a comparative advantage in producing one good or offering one service over another. It therefore means that since resources – labor, capital are land are scarce they need to make a choice. The production possibility curve (PPC) is a graphical representation of the different combinations of goods and or services that can be produced in an economy with the resources and technology available. It brings together the three concepts of scarcity, choice and opportunity cost. The choice of producing one good instead of another or a particular combination of goods reflects scarcity of resources, making a choice between alternative options, and highlights the concept of opportunity cost. The slope of the PPC represents the opportunity cost of giving up one good or service for another – in the case of a simple two good/service model. It is this opportunity cost that is used to determine whether a comparative advantage exists. An economy is deemed to have a comparative advantage in the production of a good or service if the opportunity cost of doing so is lower for that economy than any other. Deardorff in his article entitled The General Validity of the Law of Comparative Advantage though making the point that the law does not hold in multi-commodity world indicates that the comparative advantage determines the form that international trade exhibits (941). This proposition, Deardorff indicates

History of Nude Drawings in Art

History of Nude Drawings in Art Nudity vs. Nakedness The nude figure is the most volatile subject in the history of painting. The artists treatment of the nude dictates whether her gaze addresses the viewer with a coy obliqueness or a confrontational directness. The figure has the ability to condemn, invite, and often perform both simultaneously. Through the viewers inverted projection an immediate response to nudity, the nude figure attains the ability to undress us. The vulnerability and splendor of nudity is that in its elemental form, with no adornment or intention, it is looked upon with grace and beauty but the moment that it dallies on the line of effortful pleasure, it will be seen in the opposite light. Even today, certain nude photos, in the culturally appropriated context, are appreciated as art, whereas pornographic images are viewed tactlessly and cheaply. The reclining nudes contentiousness can be charted from Cabanels Venus to Manets Olympia through the writers Zola, Clark and Castagnary. They argue that it is the contex t that demarcates the crucial difference of acceptable and refutable works of nudity and explain that these artists, most notably, Manet, disobey traditional conformity by being able to belong to multiple facets of prostitution therefore, in essence, not belonging to any singular categorization. To preface my explication on Manets Olympia, Ill first give some background. Edouard Manet was born on January 29, 1832. He was well educated but showed a great liking toward drawing and the arts. His Uncle Charles Fournier encouraged Manets appreciation for the arts and often took him and his friend, Antonin Proust, on outings to the Louvre. In 1850 Manet entered the studio of Thomas Couture and studied there until 1856. During this time, Paris began its massive transformation of the city under the supervision of Baron Haussmann. Haussmanns revitalization affected the physical environment of Paris as well as the cultural and social atmosphere. Thousands of jobs were created, stores redesigned, and buildings torn down and redeveloped. All of this happened to try to make Paris the most beautiful and cultural city in the world. This idea of change might have prompted Manets decision to paint his Olympia so boldly naked. But I believe the answer lies in the artists lifelong ill-health; it was in fact Manet himself suffered the physical pain from which he suffered on a daily basis was the result of a syphilic virus contracted during one of his aforementioned youthful encounters, a misconception which haunted the artist throughout his life . Taking this point into consideration, one must therefore consider the psychological effects that Manets own feelings of guilt and regret concerning the cause of his illness, and consider the effects that it had upon his life and his work, and thus in turn the way in which those feelings influenced his view of women as a whole, but particularly those of ill-repute. Although he has been hailed as the first modern painter, Manet was inspired by the great tradition of artists like Giorgione, Titian, Velazquez and Raphael, whom the Pre-Raphaelites had rejected. For example, Olympia (1863) is undoubtedly based on Renaissance works and shows his re-examination of old masters where as traditionally, nude figures were always depicted in classical settings or as goddesses, details like the choker and shoes of the subject of this painting make it clear she is a contemporary courtesan. Also, she does not have the typical demure, slightly coy expression the public would expect, but instead looks straight out of the painting in a matter of fact, challenging manner which would be shocking and considered unacceptable at this time. This painting also shows Spanish influences, and was described by a critic as a crazy piece of Spanish madness; due to the way the figure seems to be asserting a powerful physical presence. This idea of a powerful female figure was possibly inspired by the Spanish ballet troop who performed at the Hippodrome in Paris starring a woman called Lola, depicted as a robust, red-blooded figure. In the Salon of 1863, Manets Olympia was criticized her unacceptable composition and directness of gaze while Cabanels Venus, later purchased by Napoleon III, was lauded for its refined eroticism. Castagnary epitomizes this idealized view of the nude in his account of 1863 when he uses the words dazzling, immaculate and naked beauty to describe the nude form of the goddess Venus. Castagnary also comments on Venuss harmonious pose and pure, well arranged contours. Cabanels Venus is perfectly, technically drawn- idealized, devoid of any blemish or body hair. She is sexually passive, characterless and more perfect than is humanly possible- which fitted with the accepted style of the time. According to Frances Borzello, Cabanel adheres to a strict set of conventions when he paints his Venus as historically, the reclining nude is painted in the guise of a classical goddess and tends to lie with her eyes turned from the spectator, half closed, or even closed (as in Cabanels piece), offerin g no obstacle to his free-ranging glances over her body she often stretches out in a landscape whose hummocks and valleys metaphorically echo her curves (hence the significance of the swelling sea Venus floats atop) . The Salon goers were used to seeing paintings with elaborate shades between light and dark, and because Manet covered up nearly all such shades, the critics could not see Olympia as a three dimensional figure, only as an arrangement of flat patterns. But this engaged the eye more, forcing it to assemble continuity from extremes of light and dark. Manet chose instead to paint bold brush strokes, implied shapes, strong simplified forms, and used simple colours. He allowed the viewer to see the paint itself as a part in the painting and to see the texture, and elements of colour. His work looked natural with no actual fixed composition. Olympia beyond doubt shows Manets determination to simplify. Manet highlights his subject with a thick, blackish outline that closes in o n her. As a result, all of these techniques forced the viewer to see Olympia not only as a naked woman, but also as patches of paint precisely laid on the surface of the canvas. Manets use of color in Olympia separates it from many of his other paintings. Olympias chest is very lit up making her the focus of the painting. This flattens the image of Olympia by extracting the roundness of her. Everything in this painting is either light or dark. The light and dark both make up two different planes, the foreground and the background. The white sheets, pillows, flower bouquet, and the servants dress are the entire foreground layer. The dark green curtains and rust like wallpaper make up the background. These two layers, however, are joined together with the servants dark face, the black cat, and Olympias black jewelry. Without these elements the foreground would look like it was just cut out and pasted down on a background. The contrast of colors within Manets painting appeals to the viewers senses. Emotional responses to the painting, such as purity, are caused by the white colors of the bed and the woman upon the sheets. Her white, pure skin tone relates to th e natural association with virgin purity. The darkness that surrounds the women upon the bed then relates to dark, harmful feelings that most relate to evil. The woman upon the bed inhibits the natural innocence of the painting. The flower that is placed within her hair contains colors of pink and red hues. These brighter colors of the painting bring a very strong interest to the womans head and facial features. There are other various color relationships within this painting as well. The different flowers seen in the bouquet can also be seen in the blanket Olympia is laying on. The dress of the servant matches that blanket also. The wall in the background coincides with the couch or bed that she is laying on. Overall the repetition of color allows the painting to flow smoothly. The use of color within the painting allows different perspectives based on feelings and emotions. The subject matter of this painting is both intriguing as well as artistic. The woman, Olympia, is portrayed in a very different way than most of paintings in that time period. Her naked body shows her physical beauty, but the way she is propped upon the bed gives the idea of her not having respect for her personal body. The reason for this is that other paintings of this time show women presenting themselves in a more graceful matter, stereotypically ladylike. Her complete nudity, with the exception of her bracelet, necklace, and shoes shows that she feels that accents are needed to make her beautiful. If the womans view of herself was different she would see herself and her body as a piece of art work within itself. Her jewelry, flower, and shoes show us she needs more to feel beauty outwardly. The bed beneath her gives the pretrial of laziness because it is unmade. Yet the lines of the sheets accent her body curves to give an even idea of shape. Some might view her as a sexual par tner to many men because of her willingness to be nude and the flowers that are being brought to her by the servant. The flowers symbolize Olympia being very lady-like, and proper. However she maintains a very impersonal relationship with the viewer because of her flat gaze. Camille Lemonnier states that in order for a nude to stay pure in art she must be made impersonal and this is what Cabanel does by draping the arm across Venuss face, obscuring it and allowing her just to peek out through half-closed eyelids and by ridding her body of imperfections (which explains the absence of pubic hair) that make her personalized, and therefore flawed. The view that comes across very strongly in Castagnarys account is that all artists that paint nudes should strive to create perfection. This is a very different view compared to both Zola and Clark. Cabanel also includes the group of flying cupids that accompany Venus on her journey (to finally stand erect and reveal herself to men as Castagnary puts it). They play the part of the necessary allegorical trappings that must be included in a traditional reclining nude, as the aim of the painter is to elevate his model to goddess status and present her idealized, modest form to the spectator to appreciate and admire in her immaculate beauty. By placing cupids in his painting it ensured that the spectator would know that this was Venus- not just a naked girl Cabanel got to model for him, a mistake Manet makes with his Olympia. The fact that Manet copied his model, in Zolas words, just as she was caused much shock and outrage among the crowd at the salon of 1863. Manet disrupted the convention that the reclining nude should in no way cause embarrassment to the viewer. He caused a scandal by posing his model as a modern woman (with no allusions to her being a goddess) who stared boldly back at the spectator, challenging and discomforting. In Zolas account of Manets Olympia he focuses on the technical merits of the painting and highlights the new style that Manet was painting in, saying that everything is simplified and that if you wish to construct reality you must step back a bit, he believes Manet had performed a miracle. This view differs highly from Castagnarys, as in his account of Cabanels Venus he stresses the fact that Cabanel is a skilful draughtsman and much emphasis is placed on creating a technically correct painting. However it is my view that Venus in Cabanels work doesnt sit as comfortably in her setting as Manets Olympia does in hers. To me Venus appears stuck on to the crest of the wave- as if Cabanel had sketched his model first and added the background in later, working it around his model and not actually incorporating her into the scene very effectively. However, despite Manets miracle brushwork and his courteous nod to Titians Venus of Urbino people found the painting offensive. We can clearly distinguish Olympia as being a courtesan and this is what I believe caused the public react in a hostile manner towards it. She is adorned with many of the trappings that would have been familiar to them as they would have been able to tell she was a prostitute- her pink flower placed on the side of her head, her black ribbon around her neck and slipper dangling from her foot. A black maid offers flowers to her- no doubt sent by one of her clients, also whereas Titians Venus delicately covers her sex, Olympias flexed hand firmly protects hers, as if to refuse to let the viewers eye roam freely over her. This, accompanied with her calm, almost insolent glare further adds to the feeling of discomfort the visitors to the salon must have felt. There were many prostitutes around at this time that chose ancient names for themselves (like for example Olympia and Aphrodite) and numerous members of the nobility kept open mistresses. It was normal to go about your business and family life during the day then mix with women like Olympia at night. These high class men would have attended the Salon with their families and been confronted with something from their other life- a prostitute. The fact that she was a prostitute elevated to goddess status many people thought was unacceptable. Countless felt that this kind of image didnt fit in the setting of a respectable salon. Its because of this fact that Zola states that Manets work is more real than any other- when other painters correct nature (as Cabanel does in his work) they lie why not tell the truth? He says that Olympia is a girl of our own times whom we have met in the streets. Manet incorporated the present with the classical in a way that had never been seen before, it was a comment on society but more importantly he wanted to capture his subject as she really was. Titian turned his model into a goddess, whereas Manet turned Titians goddess back into a simple woman. Here we see the differences in Castagnary and Zolas opinion. Its my impression that Castagnary advocated that nudes should be objects of perfection to be viewed as a way of deepening our appreciation of beauty, whereas Zola stresses the importance of telling the truth and painting from real life, to create a comment on society. However Clark takes a different stance on the nude altogether and argues that the nudes purpose is to stir erotic feelings within us- if it fails in this objective he believes the artist has created bad art. Clark says this is the obvious point of the nude, and that however abstract, it shouldnt fail to arouse in us some vestige of erotic feeling. Manets Olympia certainly does this and so do countless other artists versions of the nude. Artists like Giorgione and Ingres show how the nude can be erotic in the traditional sense and artists such as Henry Moore, Modigliani, Picasso and Egon Schiele have explored new ways of portraying the nude- set free by Manets rebellion in 1863. However I do not wholly agree with Clarks view that the nude should always be erotic as I think that the nude evoke other feelings besides this. For example Egon Schiele can emit the feeling that is conveyed to me is one of intense vulnerability and this is something Clarke doesnt explore at all. To be nude/naked is to be stripped of our clothes, laid bare for all to see with nothing to hide us. It is true to say also that many nude paintings are too erotic- to the point where as a spectator you feel more like a v oyeur. Lucien Freuds painting Naked Girl Asleep for example, shocks me whenever I look at it, as do any of his paintings. However it is true to say that in the period we are living in we have been desensitized, which makes me believe that my reaction to Freuds work is similar to the salon goers of Manets day, to his Olympia. Its my opinion that the subject in Naked Girl Asleep is placed centrally on the canvas so that it forces you to look at her (much like how Manet made the focal point of his painting, Olympias eyes where she challenges you to engage with her). Everything in Freuds piece seems too stark and amplified, the rib cage juts out and the skin tone of the girl has an almost death like quality. Funnily enough this view is very similar to comments made by critics of Manets time about Olympias dirty flesh. I think it is very important to remind ourselves therefore of the period that each of these extracts were written in, as both Castagnary and Zolas account come from 1863, whereas the extract from Clarks book was written in 1956 and therefore what society found acceptable as art had changed quite dramatically. For centuries the reclining nude had been constrained by rules and conventions. After 1900 a reclining nude could be fractured by cubism or dissolved by abstraction painters were able to depict the previously unemitable. The nudes are no longer passive like Cabanels Venus but force you to interact with them, as did Manets Olympia. However, I do agree with Clarkes point that a nude should be erotic, but I dont believe that is its only purpose. I also agree with his point that if it does not evoke any feeling then it is bad art and I think this is true to says of all art in every genre. I believe a painting has to make you feel something whether its a bad feeling or a good one, as then it is creating a response- this is what I believe good art does. For me I get more out of looking at Manets Olympia than I do looking at Cabanels Venus as I feel there is more to engage with in the painting- the black servant presenting a bouquet of flowers, the cat arching its back and the mystery this creates. Is the cat arching his back and hissing because an unexpected person has just walked into Olympias room? Has Olympia sat up straighter, placed her hand coyly over her pubic area and met an unannounced guest with accusing, challenging eyes? Are we, as the spectator, in the position of someone bursting in? Is it us she chall enges, looking out as we look in? Cabanels painting in contrast fills me with none of these questions apart from the fact that I want to know why it is that Cabanel thought it acceptable to plonk Venus on top of the wave; I feel that she and the background do not fit together at all. Saying this I wouldnt say that Cabanels Venus was completely devoid of any erotic overtones, as I believe the way she gazes out at the spectator through half closed eyes is, in a way, inviting. I think the main thing that irritates me about this painting though is her passivity, almost as if she cant be bothered to really acknowledge you. She seems resigned to the fact that she is there as an object of desire and just accepts it. Whereas Olympia is much more aware of her sexuality and is in control of it- this to me, living in a post-feminist era is a lot more interesting and I feel I can identify with the painting more. In conclusion I believe that each of the writers attitudes towards the nude in the three extracts is valid and interesting. I can see Castagnarys point that the nude should be perfect as it can be an object of beauty, but this is an idealized view of how a woman should be. This view is still prevalent today in the culture we live in, where we are bombarded with images of perfect (often airbrushed models) on a daily basis. The idea of what perfection is may have changed but the concept has not. I believe that Zolas opinion that painters should tell the truth is correct in reference to painting the nude, as I agree with showing the body as it is, complete with every blemish as Picasso said if it is pure (as Venus is in Cabanels painting) it is not art . I also agree with Clark to some extent when he says that a nudes purpose is to be erotic, but I do not believe that this is its only purpose. The nude can evoke all sorts of feelings within the viewer- feelings of pity, of empathy, of a mazement, or of appreciation of our human bodies. To be nude is to revert back to the way we were in the beginning. Bibliography CLARK, T.J.- Olympias Choice, The Painting Of Modern Life- Princeton- 1984- p. 212, p.214 BORZELLO, Frances- Nude Awakening- The Guardian Online- 2009 (Found athttp://arts.guardian.co.uk/features/story/0,11710,824240,00.html) CLARK, Kenneth- The Nude- A Study Of Ideal Art- John Murray- London- 1956; repr 1957- p. 6

Pride and Prejudice Essay: The Character of Elizabeth -- Pride and Pre

The Character of Elizabeth in Pride and Prejudice       In her novel, Pride and Prejudice, Jane Austen portrays Elizabeth Bennet as "strong and intelligent, yet bewitching in a completely feminine way". Elizabeth's possession of these attributes: strength of character and moral integrity, great intelligence, and an attractive personality, make her an admirable person. Yet Elizabeth has faults, which makes her more human. Austen's portrayal of Elizabeth is realistic and masterful, often juxtaposing her with characters lacking her attributes to heighten our appreciation of her. The claim that Elizabeth is strong is indisputable. The strength of her personal integrity is highly evident in her refusal of Darcy's first marriage proposal. At the time, she believed Darcy to be arrogant and selfish, based on Wickham's account of Darcy's disgraceful behaviour towards him. She was also furious with him for ruining Jane's chance of happiness (through marrying Bingley). Yet, it would have been prudent for her, a girl with only  £1,000 and 4% interest annually from it, to marry Darcy, whose estate is worth  £10,000 a year. She never wavers, though -- "her intentions did not vary for an instant". The strength of her convictions and loyalty towards her sister made her reject his offer, and with it, probably all possibility of her every marrying "well" and securing a comfortable future. Also, she was not intimidated by Darcy's wealth and high social status, daring to tell him exactly what she thought of him and to risk his anger by offending him -- "You could not hav e made me the offer of your hand in any possible way that would have tempted me to accept it." It is very clear that Elizabeth's principles are uncompromisable. Elizabeth ... ...on & Company, 1966. 374-388. Litz, A. Walton, Jane Austen: A Study of Her Artistic Development. Oxford University Press, 1965, p. 198. Moler, Kenneth. Pride and Prejudice: A Study in Artistic Economy. Boston, MA: Twayne Publishers, 1989. Mullane, Janet & Wilson, Robert Thomas, Nineteenth-Century Literature Criticism. Detroit, MI: Gale Research Inc., 1988, Vol. 19, pp. 2, 4-8, 14, 17, 32, 42, 55-6, 58, and 66-7. "A Review of 'Pride and Prejudice,'" Critical Review, Vol. 3, No. 3, March, 1813, pp. 318-24. Southam, B.C., (ed.), Jane Austen: The Critical Heritage. Landon, NY: Routledge & Kegan Paul - Barres & Nobel Inc., 1968. Weldon, Fay. Readings on Jane Austen Taplinger Publishing Co. Inc, 1984 in. Ed. Wright, Andrew H. "Feeling and Complexity in Pride and Prejudice." Ed. Donald Gray. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1966. 410-420.   

Consumerism Essay

Taking the green to the extreme A lot of consumer groups are starting to show up against capitalism and consumerism. They strive to come out with the message that â€Å"less is more†, meaning that buying less is better for the environment. They are taking recycling to another level. The question is, is it possible to make a huge impact? Do we really need to stop consuming to make a difference? And how bad do we need a change? One of these groups are called freegans. Freegans are people living an anti-consumer lifestyle, they choose to re-use food that is being tossed to the curbside but the food being tossed is edible.A lot of people think that it is obscene to eat food out of a dumpster or curbside and that it is impossible to know how long the food has been out there. They are not necessarily being freegans out of economical issues they are doing it out of principle because they do not wish to fund those big corporations that are spoiling the environment and they also think about the homeless people and give them some of the food they find since they get so much that they cannot take it all home. Their message is being well received, since some stores put the food in way that makes it easy for them to pick and choose and they even wink at them.Another group is the Compact that are against consumerism. It originated in 2005 at dinner party in San Francisco, where the guests decided to take recycling to another level by going a whole year without making a new purchase but they are allowed to buy used items and are encouraged to borrow and reuse whatever possible. They too think that consumerism is destroying the world and that most of us own more than we need. Their concept is being taken rather seriously and has quickly been spread all across the United States of America. Almost 3. 00 people from all over the world has taken part of the concept on Yahoo and the participants think that it has been a rewarding experience. Quote from John Perry the co-foun der of the Compact group – â€Å"We’ve enjoyed the camaraderie and competitive spirit with friends,â€Å" Perry said. â€Å"And it’s been really good for us to think about what we need, as opposed to what we want† When Colin Beavan got the news about global warming and he did not feel that the government was doing something about it, so he decided to do something about it, therfore he did something that nobody has done in thousands of years.Colin Beavan decided to live without electricity through a whole year with his daughter and wife. Other initiatives are to use low-energy transportation, eliminating trash, eating locally and seasonal and so on He wrote a book called â€Å"No Impact Man: A Year Off the Grid† based on his experiences throughout the year he was living without electricity. Colin Beavan says that whenever they were bored they went to the park and hung out with their neighbors and in this way they were both being social and sparing the environment. Colin Beavan has encouraged people to do the same by starting the No Impact Experiment.There is a webpage were you can register yourself to join the No Impact Experiment, you can schedule how you are going to live a week and upload videos of how well you are doing, so that everyone can see your results. Personally I think that these are some amazing initiatives and it is very inspiring but I do not think I would be able to live by eating food from the dumpsters or without electricity, I am too accustom to the way I am living like right now and I believe a lot people would have difficulties because they are to accustom to the way they are, I know a lot of people who cannot live without their cell phones or being on Facebook.A lot of the things that a couple years ago we almost did not use have become a necessity for us, e. g. internet, or at least for my generation. I do think that even the smallest thing you do, can help the environment and the small steps are the ones that are going to help the environment. ?

Diabetes And Other Non Communicable Diseases Sciences Essays

Diabetes And Other Non Communicable Diseases Sciences Essays Diabetes And Other Non Communicable Diseases Sciences Essay Diabetes And Other Non Communicable Diseases Sciences Essay Today, diabetes and other non catching diseases ( NCDs ) that portion the same hazard factors represent a taking menace to wellness and human development. An estimated 8 to 14 million people die prematurely every twelvemonth in developing states due to preventable NCDs chiefly cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, malignant neoplastic diseases, and chronic respiratory diseases. These people are deceasing excessively immature as a consequence of increased exposure to the common hazard factors for NCDs: unhealthy diets, physical inaction, baccy usage and the harmful usage of alcohol. ( WHO ) . Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus consequences from insulin opposition, a status in which cells fail to utilize insulin decently, sometimes combined with absolute insulin deficiency. ( Wikipedia ) . Diabetes is recognized as a group of heterogenous upsets with the common elements of hyperglycaemia and glucose intolerance, due to insulin lack, impaired effectivity of insulin action, or both ( IDF ) . Epidemiology of T2DM Diabetess mellitus is one of the most common hormone upsets impacting about 6 % of the universe s population. [ 1 ] Etiology of Diabetes mellitus The causes of diabetes mellitus are incompletely understood. It has now been widely accepted that the cause of diabetes mellitus is multifactorial and that both familial and environmental factors play a conducive function. [ 1 ] Asiatic populations are multiracial and have multi factorial causes of type 2 diabetes. The mechanisms implicit in development of the disease are complex and varied, even within these populations. The major aetiologic constituents of type 2 diabetes are impaired insulin secernment and impaired insulin action, which are aggravated by the presence and grade of glucotoxicity. Both constituents might besides be genetically predetermined. [ 2 ] Definition of T2DM The definition of diabetes may be given in different footings but the significance of the definitions is the same, as diabetes has become an endemic Non catching disease non merely in developed states but besides increasing prevalence in developing states. This displacement in the from traditional Healthy diets to western The Indian nutrient points are usually rich in fats and the method of the readying of a individual nutrient point differs from one individual to the other. The street nutrient peddling units and the wont of eating outside the place has mostly affected the normal nutrient forms in India. The street nutrients which include get downing from breakfast point like vada, poori etc has increased ingestion in the Indian population to the tiffin points and flushing bites which include mirch bajji, aloo bonda and confab bhandar nutrients has increased ingestion due to miss of clip to fix clip at place households are largely depending on the nutrient available outside the place . ( besides the Indian fast nutrient is bad: think of Vada-Pav ) fast nutrient diets, deficiency of regular physical activity, unable to keep a normal organic structure weight and increasing usage of baccy both in work forces and adult females are the nucleus causes for diabetes happening. I truly can non notice on this statement as I read it in one of the below listed articles ( Do you truly believe so? ! Where have you read this? Not right ) . Ethnicities Harmonizing to the Journal article of Nepal Medical Association by Battarai MD [ 3 ] , Ethnicity is considered to be an of import factor in diabetes development with higher rates being reported in Asians, Hispanics, African Americans and autochthonal peoples of the USA, Canada, Australia and Pacific parts ( IDF ) . However the term ethnicity appears to transport the impression of prevailing familial component, which we can non alter. With increasing fleshiness, diminishing physical activity, and lifting life anticipation of population, prevalence of diabetes additions. Prevalence of diagnosed diabetes in the USA increased increasingly from 0.9 % in 1958 to 5.9 % in 2006. Beginning: Center for disease control and prevention The universe broad statistics of diabetes from different cited articles suggests that, In Canada age adjusted addition in prevalence was from 4.4 % in 1986 to 6.6 % in 1991.11 Similarly in Iceland the prevalence in males was 2.8 % in 1970-1972, 4.5 % in 1979-1984 and 5.0 % in 1985-1990. The comparative diabetes prevalence estimations for 2007 in North America and Europe are about 4-9 % . ( IDF ) . In the USA there is progressive addition in fleshiness and an estimated 66 % of grownups were fleshy or corpulent in 2003-2004. ( NCHS ) . Similar rise in fleshiness was seen in Europe. ( WHO ) The grownup average organic structure mass index ( BMI ) degrees of 20-23 kg/m2 were found among the general population in Africa and Asia, while degrees were 25-27 kg/m2 across North America and Europe in 2002. The proportion of entire estimated figure of people with diabetes in 2007 in 20-39, 40-59 and 60-79 age groups are 7-10 % , 36-45 % , and 46-57 % in European and North American parts severall y and 23-33 % , 42-52 % and 25-30 % in African, South-East Asian and Eastern Mediterranean and Middle East parts severally. ( Bhattarai MD ) Prevalence of diabetes among grownups above 20 old ages in urban India was about 1 % in 1960 which increased steeply making to about 12 % by 2005. Similarly, analysis of old tendencies of age adjusted prevalence rates of diabetes in different urban countries reveals 7.7 % in 1990 and 8.9 % in 1995 in Hong Kong, 8.1 % in 1993 in Singapore and 11 % in 1995 in Taiwan ; 4 5 % in 1994 in urban Sri Lanka, 9.7 % in 2004 in urban Cambodia and 4.5 % in 1997 and 8.1 % in 2005 in Dhaka 9.5 % in Latinos and 13.3 % in Africans in 2005 in the USA and 15.2 % in Bahrain and Qatar and 19.4 % in the United Arab Emirates in 2007 ( Bhattarai MD ) GENETICS OF T2DM Type 2 diabetes is a disease characterized by impaired b-cell secernment of insulin, in combination with opposition to insulin in its mark tissues. Both insulin secernment and insulin sensitiveness are influenced by familial and environmental factors. [ 4 ] Although monogenic signifiers of diabetes have been found ( Table 1 ) [ 5 ] , the bulk of instances of type 2 diabetes do non demo heritage as a Mendelian trait, but instead as a genetically complex upset in which familial discrepancies predispose persons to develop the disease. The environmental factors, such as extra nutrient and limited physical activity. The rapid rise in diabetes prevalence over the last few decennaries strongly suggests that familial discrepancies involved in type 2 diabetes are interacting with environmental factors. Table 1.Genes Associated with Diabetess: Overview of their Target Tissue1, Function2, and Related Medication3 Diabetess Gene Proposed Diabetess Target Cell Type / Tissue1 Monogenic Diabetess4 Type 2 Diabetess5 Proposed Function ( s ) for Gene Product2 Drug ( s ) Affecting theSame Pathway as theDiabetess Gene3 ABCC8 Pancreass b-Cell Ten B-cell ion homeostasis and insulin secernment ; ATP-binding cassette transporter that modulates ATP sensitive K channels and insulin release Sulfonylurea derived functions ADAMTS9 Unknown Ten Cleavage of proteoglycans Unknown CDC123 Pancreass b-Cell Ten Cell rhythm ordinance Unknown CDKAL1 Pancreass b-Cell Ten Growth and development Proinsulin to insulin transition Unknown CDKN2A Pancreass b-Cell Ten Cell rhythm ordinance Unknown CEL unknown Ten Glycoprotein that is of import in ordinance of cholesterin Metamorphosis Unknown Terrorist organization hypothalamus Ten Associated to fleshiness Unknown GCK unknown Ten Catalyzes reaction from glucose to glucose-6- Phosphate Unknown HHEX Pancreass b-Cell Ten Growth and development ; written text factor Unknown HNF4a Pancreass b-Cell Ten Growth and development ; written text factor Unknown IDE Pancreass b-Cell Ten Termination of the response to insulin Unknown IGF2BP2 Pancreass b-Cell Ten Growth and development Unknown JAZF1 Pancreass b-Cell Ten Cell rhythm ordinance ; transcriptional represser Unknown KCNJ11 Pancreass b-Cell Ten Ten B-cell ion homeostasis and insulin secernment Sulfonylurea derived functions KCNQ1 Pancreass b-Cell Ten B-cell ion homeostasis and insulin secernment Sulfonylurea derived functions KLF11 unknown Ten unknown Unknown NEUROD1 Pancreass b-Cell Ten Growth and development ; written text factor that activates several cistrons including insulin and is of import for early b-cell development Unknown NOTCH2 Pancreass b-Cell Ten Growth and development ; written text factor ; receptor for membrane edge ligands Unknown PDX1 Pancreass b-Cell Ten Growth and development ; atomic protein that acts as a transcriptional activator of several cistrons including insulin and is of import for early b-cell development Unknown PPARG Adipocytes Ten Nuclear receptor ( transcription factor ) that regulates adipocyte distinction Thiazolidinediones SLC30A8 Pancreass b-Cell Ten B-cell ion homeostasis and insulin secernment ; cellular outflow of Zn2+ ions Proinsulin to insulin transition Sulfonylurea derived functions TCF1 Pancreass b-Cell Ten Growth and development ; Transcription factor that forms a complex with the merchandise of TCF2 of import for Wnt signaling Unknown TCF2 Pancreass b-Cell Ten Ten Growth and development ; written text factor that forms a complex with the merchandise of TCF1 of import for Wnt signaling Cell rhythm ordinance Unknown TCF7L2 Pancreass b-Cell Ten Wnt signaling Proinsulin to insulin transition Unknown THADA Pancreass b-Cell Ten Apoptosis Unknown TSPAN8 Unknown Ten Glycoprotein involved in the mediation of signal Transduction Unknown WFS1 Pancreass b-Cell Ten Ten Apoptosis ; Endoplasmic Reticulum emphasis tract activation Unknown Other T2DM susceptibleness cistrons TCF7L2 joins a instead short list of cistrons that have been reproducibly associated with T2D. The strongest extra campaigners for this list include the E23K discrepancy of KCNJ11 and the P12A discrepancy of PPARG. Both of these associations have been replicated in several samples, and the cumulative grounds has long surpassed genome-wide significance. The past two old ages have witnessed an acceleration in our apprehension of both monogenic and multi factorial signifiers of diabetes. There are really strong evidences for believing that the following moving ridge of fresh diabetes-susceptibility discrepancies will flux from the genome-wide association surveies that are presently underway. As with TCF7L2, we can anticipate these to present important new penetrations into the pathogenesis of T2D and the allelomorphic architecture of complex traits in general. [ 6 ] Genome-Wide Association Studies ( GWAS ) Recent progresss in genotyping techniques and the aggregation of big, type 2 diab etes patient cohorts have made it possible to execute hypothesis-free genome-wide association surveies ( GWAS ) to place common familial discrepancies that increase susceptibleness to type 2 diabetes. It has been estimated that, in a Caucasic population, measuring 500,000 SNPs will observe around 80 % of the common familial fluctuation. The genome-wide attack has been really successful for type 2 diabetes, taking to the designation of over a twelve common familial discrepancies associated with the disease lying near cistrons that had non antecedently been associated with a diabetic phenotype. [ 4 ] WC Cut-offs for Asiatic Indians: Action level 1: Work force: 78 centimeter, adult females: 72 centimeter. Any individual with WC above these degrees should avoid deriving weight and maintain physical activity to avoid geting any of the cardiovascular hazard factor. These action degree 1 cut-offs demand to be researched farther. Action level 2: Work force: 90 centimeter, adult females: 80 centimeter. Capable with WC above this should seek medical aid so that obesity-related hazard factors could be investigated and managed. [ 7 ] Diet and T2DM Dietary fat and insulin opposition Dietary polyunsaturated fatty acids ( PUFAs ) :An impressive organic structure of grounds has established the nexus between dietetic lipoids, membrane lipoids and insulin opposition in carnal surveies. Overall, surveies have shown that dietetic? -3 PUFAs addition EPA and DHA content of phospholipids membrane, better lipoid profile and have either a good or no consequence on insulin sensitiveness. Dietary saturated fatty acids ( SFAs ) :Intake of SFAs is a important independent forecaster of fasting and postprandial insulin concentrations. Overall consumption of dietetic SFAs is positively related to insulin opposition. Replacing SFAs with MUFAs or PUFAs in dietetic fat may be a utile dietetic intercession to forestall metabolic impairment. Dietary glandular fever unsaturated fatty acids ( MUFAs ) :Overall, high MUFAs diets have shown good consequence in direction of T2DM but its influence on insulin opposition, although appears good, is still inconclusive. Dietary trans fatty acids ( TFAs ) :Dietary TFAs consumption has been found to be associated with dyslipidaemia and addition hazard of T2DM and CVD, but the relationship between dietetic TFAs and insulin opposition has been ill investigated. Overall, limited informations suggest that dietetic TFAs consumption, although associated with dyslipidaemia and addition hazard of T2DM and CVD, may non impact insulin sensitiveness particularly in healthy persons. Conjugated linoleic acid ( CLA ) :CLA is a mixture of positional and geometric isomers of LA ( 18:2n-6 ) normally found in beef, lamb and dairy merchandises. Overall, limited informations suggest that dietetic TFAs consumption, although associated with dyslipidaemia and addition hazard of T2DM and CVD, may non impact insulin sensitiveness particularly in healthy persons. Dietary saccharide consumption and insulin opposition Sucrose/fructose:high sucrose/fructose diet additions organic structure weight and hazard for T2DM and its influence on insulin sensitiveness, although appears hurtful, is still inconclusive. Low glycaemic index nutrients:Prospective surveies have shown that ingestion of low dietetic GI nutrients is associated with a lower hazard of T2DM, proposing a preventative function of low GI diets. [ 8 ] . A low GI diet improves blood glucose control as manifested by lowered day-long glycaemia, lowered glycosylated haemoglobin concentration and improved glucose tolerance. A retrospective meta analysis of randomized controlled clinical tests comparing low and high GI diets in the intervention of T1DM and T2DM. They found that low GI diets globally reduced HbA1C by 0.43 per cent points compared to high GI diets in surveies with both T1DM and T2DM topics. [ 9 ] Whole grain consumption:In drumhead, whole grain consumption is associated with lower prevalence of the metabolic syndrome, BMI values, entire cholesterin, and LDL-C degrees and improves insulin sensitiveness. Asiatic Indians in India consume comparatively more saccharides ( ~60-67 % of the energy consumption ) as compared to the migratory Asiatic Indians in UK ( ~46 % of the energy consumption ) and USA ( ~56-58 % of the energy consumption ) . Sevak et Al found that carbohydrate consumption ( as a per centum of entire energy ) was reciprocally correlated with insulin sensitiveness ( i.e. , entire saccharide and sucrose were positively correlated with insulin opposition ) , with a stronger correlativity for sucrose than for amylum. The same form was seen for fasting insulin, but the correlativity was weaker [ 10 ] . Data suggest that dietetic? -3 PUFAs addition EPA and DHA content of phospholipids membrane, better lipoid profile and may hold good consequence on insulin opposition. Dietary SFAs consumption is positively associated with insulin opposition. Replacing dietetic SFAs with PUFAs or MUFAs can hold positive effects on insulin sensitiveness. High sucrose/fructose diet addition organ ic structure weight, and hazard for T2DM, and may hold hurtful consequence on insulin sensitiveness. Evidence suggests that high saccharide diets increase concentrations of plasma triglycerides and diminish HDL-C and LDL-C and do postprandial hyperinsulinaemia. However, it is still non clear from the available informations whether the clinical public-service corporation of increasing the fibre content or diminishing the GI of low-fat/high-carbohydrates diets is preferred to merely replacing saturated fat with unsaturated fat and diminishing saccharides intake to diminish insulin opposition. [ 10 ] Familial sensitivity, dietetic wonts, quickly altering life style, physical inaction and migration are conducive factors for high prevalence of insulin opposition in Asiatic Indians compared with white Caucasic and in-depth probes on these issues are required. Asiatic Indians and South Asians have higher consumptions of saccharide and? -6 PUFAs, lower consumptions of? -3 PUFAs and fi ber, and higher? -6/ ? 3 PUFAs ratio as compared to white Caucasians. Recently, our group has reported that dietetic? -6 PUFAs consumption is signifi cant independent forecasters of fasting hyperinsulinaemia in immature Asiatic Indians. ( Change in wonts ) MANAGEMENT OF TYPE 2 DIABETES The corner rock for diabetes direction still lies in diet and exercising [ 11 ] . There is besides a easy spread outing list of drugs being used to handle type 2 diabetes, all of which act through one of the tracts of import in diabetes pathophysiology. However, neither alterations in lifestyle nor the usage of medicine are sufficient to bring around diabetes, although both intercessions can detain the patterned advance of disease. [ 12 ] There is hence an pressing demand to develop new medicines or schemes to counter the immense addition in instances expected in the hereafter. Since the direction of type 2 diabetes with either lifestyle alterations, medicine or both, is more effectual when started at an early phase, bettering the techniques for early diagnosing and the chances for early intercession will greatly better the effects of current ways of pull offing type 2 diabetes. IMPLICATIONS FOR PREVENTION AND TREATMENT Familial Screening for Prediction and Prevention The effectivity of current type 2 diabetes direction is greatly improved when it is started at an early phase of the disease. If familial testing could be used to foretell type 2 diabetes, preventative steps could be taken and diabetes could potentially be managed more easy. However, the discrepancies associated with type 2 diabetes that have been identified so far merely explicate a little per centum of the entire familial fluctuation that is thought to be present [ 13-14 ] . It is hence non yet possible to execute accurate prognostic familial testing but, in the close hereafter, research should supply more penetration into the chances for such testing. Common discrepancies in type 2 diabetes cistrons associating to cell rhythm events and programmed cell death, and stand foring different allelomorphs than those associated to type 2 diabetes, are besides associated with assorted malignant neoplastic diseases. [ 4 ] . ( This above artic le from mention 4 ) In the survey by Leitzmann M F, et Al, revealed that diabetes was reciprocally associated with early phase prostate malignant neoplastic disease but it showed no relation with aggressive prostate malignant neoplastic disease. But there was an association between diabetes and aggressive prostate malignant neoplastic disease in the subgroup of work forces with a low BMI. [ 15 ] Both a high proportion of organic structure fat and a predomination of cardinal fleshiness are associated with insulin opposition. A high proportion of Asiatic people have both these features, and might besides hold pancreatic ?-cell secretory defects. [ 16 ] Diabetess and other complications because of diabetes A epidemiological survey estimated the prevalence of anaemia to be 12.3 % in persons with type 2 diabetes mellitus, above the age of 40 old ages ; no gender differences were observed. Persons with anaemia were 1.80 times more likely to develop diabetic retinopathy than persons with no anaemia. In work forces, the hazard of developing diabetic retinopathy increased to 2.05 times. A salient determination was the association between the continuance of diabetes and the prevalence of anaemia. Persons with continuance of diabetes of more than 5 old ages have 1.56 times higher hazard of developing anaemia than those with diabetes for less than 5 old ages. These observations suggest that anemia rating should be considered in the everyday direction of individuals with diabetes and should be treated to minimise the hazard of microvascular complications such as nephropathy and retinopathy. ( Anemia and Diabetic Retinopathy in Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus, Padmaja Kumari Rani ) T2DM Is a Familial Disease: Classical Evidence The spectrum of T2DM prevalence in different cultural groups The prevalence of T2DM varies widely among populations, but the disease prevalence varies well among cultural groups that portion a similar environment supports the thought that familial factors contribute to disease sensitivity. Familial collection: Other than cistrons, households portion environments, civilization and wonts, yet familial collection of the disease is another beginning of grounds for a familial part to the disease. Twin surveies:Multiple surveies of duplicate harmony rates have been undertaken in T2DM. Estimates for harmony rates have ranged from 0.29 to 1.00 in monozygotic ( MZ ) twins, while in dizygous ( DZ ) twins the scope was 0.10-0.43. In malice of several cautions in duplicate surveies, the high harmony in MZ twins and the 50 % autumn in DZ twins provides compelling grounds for a familial constituent of T2DM. Heritability of intermediate phenotypes:Insulin sensitiveness and insulin secernment deteriorate in analogue in most human T2DM. Oxidative Metabolism and the Pancreatic ?-Cell Insulin secernment by the pancreatic ?-cell is modulated by multiple stimulations. Oxidative mitochondrial metamorphosis and adenosine triphosphate ( ATP ) coevals is indispensable to glucose stirred insulin secernment. The increased ratio of ATP to adenosine diphosphate ( ADP ) in the ?-cell triggers a series of events: suppression of the cell s ATP/ADP-regulated K channel ( KATP, encoded by cistrons KCNJ11 and ABCC8 ) , plasma membrane depolarisation, gap of a voltage-gated Ca channel, Ca inflow, and conveyance and binding of insulin granules to the cell surface [ 17 ] . The ATP/ADP ratio is in bend altered by UCP2, an built-in mitochondrial membrane protein that permits protons to leak across the mitochondrial inner membrane, therefore decoupling of glucose oxidative metamorphosis from ATP production. By diminishing the sum of ATP generated from glucose, UCP2 look negatively regulates glucose-stimulated insulin secernment. Over-expression of UCP2 in ?-cells in vitro lessenings glu cose-stimulated insulin secernment [ 18 ] . Glucose homeostasis:the cardinal nervous system. Degrees of glucose in the blood are regulated by a complex interplay between the visual aspect of glucose from both enteric soaking up and hepatic production and its disappearing through insulin-dependent and insulin independent glucose consumption in a assortment of tissues. After the nightlong fast, glucose is mostly produced by animal starch dislocation and gluconeogenesis. About 80 % of this glucose released by liver is metabolized independent of insulin by encephalon and other insulin-independent tissues ( intestine, ruddy cells ) . The median hypothalamus, a major planimeter of nutritionary and hormonal signals, plays a polar function non merely in the ordinance of energy balance but besides in the transition of liver glucose end product. The ?-Cell and Type 2 Diabetess Damage of insulin secernment from pancreatic ?-cell is besides a major constituent of T2DM pathogenesis. Analysis of mutants involved in six different adulthood onset diabetes of the immature ( MODY ) cistrons have revealed the of import function of written text factors in the insulin secernment. Many mechanisms lending to T2DM may trip ?-cell programmed cell death and decreased ?-cell mass or ability to counterbalance for insulin opposition [ 19 ] Cost of diabetes in India. Figure 1-Expenditure incurred by urban and rural topics in relation to the figure of complications. The x-axis shows the prevalence of complications, and the y-axis shows the outgo incurred in Indian Rs. In a survey Ramachandran A et Al, [ 20 ] indicated that the economic load of diabetes care on households in developing states is lifting quickly, even after accounting for the rising prices. The highest addition in per centum of family income devoted to diabetes attention was in the lowest economic group ( 34 % of income in 1998 vs. 24.5 % in 2005 ) . There was a important betterment in urban topics in medical reimbursement from 2 % ( 1998 ) to 21.3 % ( 2005 ) . So the survey concludes that Urban and rural diabetic topics spend a big per centum of income on diabetes direction. The economic load on urban households in developing states is lifting, and the entire direct cost has doubled from 1998 to 2005. [ 20 ] High Prevalence of Diabetes and Cardiovascular Risk Factors Associated With Urbanization in India This survey studies alterations in diabetes prevalence based on population studies in Southern India. The prevalence of diabetes in the metropolis and the town was similar. IGT decreased in all countries, most markedly in the metropolis, accompaniment with an addition in diabetes. High prevalence of diabetes in the metropolis and the town and a rapid addition in the PUVs could mostly be due to urbanisation. Urbanization in India is expected to make 46 % by 2030 ( WHO Demographic tendencies ) ; hence, in the hereafter a larger part to the diabetic population would be from rural countries. The most unexpected findings in the survey were the pronounced addition in prevalence of diabetes in the PUVs and a crisp decrease in IGT in all countries. One of the restrictions was that comparings were made of surveies done in different PUV locations. Therefore, temporal alterations and geographic differences could hold contributed to the differences. Demographic and population features of the sur vey populations were similar in these country [ 21 ] In a survey by Ramachandran A et Al fleshiness, female sex, parental history of type 2 diabetes, and pubertal age appeared to be strongly associated with the disease in Asiatic kids. Unlike in the kids with type 1 diabetes who had acute oncoming of the disease with terrible symptoms and ketoacidurias, thin organic structure weight, and deficiency of familial collection, the type 2 diabetic kids showed characteristics similar to authoritative grownup onset type 2 diabetes. Obesity was present in lone half of the probands seen by them. Insulin opposition is a common characteristic even in nonobese Asian-Indian topics. Type 2 diabetes in kids is an entity that needs to be recognized and looked for, particularly in corpulent kids of diabetic parents in India. Asymptomatic nature may detain the diagnosing in many as it normally does in grownup type 2 diabetic topics. [ 22 ] Treatment of T2DM A survey by Knowler WC, et Al revealed that Lifestyle alterations and intervention with Glucophage both have reduced the incidence of diabetes in individuals at high hazard. It besides stated that lifestyle intercession was more effectual than Glucophage. [ 12 ] In the farther surveies by Molitch M E, et Al, showed the incidence of diabetes was reduced by 58 % with the lifestyle intercession and by 31 % with Glucophage, compared with placebo. These effects were shown to be similar in work forces and adult females, and in all

Free Essays on Late Adulthood

The purpose of this assignment is to present a case in late adulthood, based on an interview of an older adult, and to analyze that case from a developmental perspective. Through this process, studied theories will be applied to a real situation, and therefore the assignment serves as a means of demonstrating true understanding of developmental theories studied in the classroom. Relevant information gained from research will also be included and applied to the situation, demonstrating understanding of research techniques and the importance of the impact that historical events have on human beings. Method The idea of the case study design is to look at one particular subject’s experiences during adulthood, and use that information to apply theories and better understand how people’s lives change over time, and the factors that influence people’s choices and experiences. The method used to gather information was the interview method, specifically a semi-structured clinical interview. That is, the interviewer asked a given set of questions, and also probed the subject’s ideas and reasoning in an open-ended manner by asking him or her to elaborate on his or her responses. In this kind of research, the interviewer must take a very active role. The interview protocol included an introduction, explaining the purpose of the interview and informing the subject that the discussion would be tape recorded, and that the identity of the individual would be kept confidential. Six specific questions, or variations of them, were then used as the guidelines for the interview. These questions included probes for information about the subject’s most important life events since high school, the most important people in his or her life, historical events that influenced the subject’s life, and the impact of cultural background on the individual. A more detailed transcription of the interview that I conducted can be found in the A... Free Essays on Late Adulthood Free Essays on Late Adulthood The purpose of this assignment is to present a case in late adulthood, based on an interview of an older adult, and to analyze that case from a developmental perspective. Through this process, studied theories will be applied to a real situation, and therefore the assignment serves as a means of demonstrating true understanding of developmental theories studied in the classroom. Relevant information gained from research will also be included and applied to the situation, demonstrating understanding of research techniques and the importance of the impact that historical events have on human beings. Method The idea of the case study design is to look at one particular subject’s experiences during adulthood, and use that information to apply theories and better understand how people’s lives change over time, and the factors that influence people’s choices and experiences. The method used to gather information was the interview method, specifically a semi-structured clinical interview. That is, the interviewer asked a given set of questions, and also probed the subject’s ideas and reasoning in an open-ended manner by asking him or her to elaborate on his or her responses. In this kind of research, the interviewer must take a very active role. The interview protocol included an introduction, explaining the purpose of the interview and informing the subject that the discussion would be tape recorded, and that the identity of the individual would be kept confidential. Six specific questions, or variations of them, were then used as the guidelines for the interview. These questions included probes for information about the subject’s most important life events since high school, the most important people in his or her life, historical events that influenced the subject’s life, and the impact of cultural background on the individual. A more detailed transcription of the interview that I conducted can be found in the A...

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International Business(Singapore) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

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